Literature is the reflection of life. It mirrors the society in which it is generated. The word literature comes from the Latin word ‘litaritura’ meaning “writing organized with letters”. We classify literature according to language, origin, historical period, genre, and subject matter.
English literature, however, emerged with the beginning of the history of English people. It refers to all the literary works (novels, short stories, poems, fiction, nonfiction, and plays) composed in English. The earliest works of English literature mirror the life lived by the people of that region at that specific period. For instance, all the changes undergone by English society from the earliest to the modern time have left their imprints on English literature. Being the literature of a nation characterized by the spirit of determination, adventure, and diligence, English literature is rich in vitality, diversity, and essence.
A Brief History of English Literature
The introduction and history of English literature go side by side. You can’t get the complete introduction of English literature without going deep down in its history. The history of English literature initiated with the history of the English race and kept on developing with the social development of the nation. When we analyze the history of English literature, we discover that it consists of eight (8) major periods and several ages. Each period or age of English literature is named after the central literary figure, or the important rulers of England, or certain literary movements. Moreover each period or phase of English literature has its distinct characteristics.
What are the ‘Eight (8) Major Periods’ in the history of English Literature?
- The Anglo-Saxon or Old English Period (450–1066)
- The Anglo-Norman or Middle English period (1066–1500)
- The Renaissance Period (1500–1660)
- The Neoclassical Period (1660–1798)
- The Romantic Period (1798–1837)
- The Victorian Period (1837–1901)
- The Modern Period (1901-1945)
- The Contemporary Period (1945–Today)
A Brief Overview & Timeline of British Literary Periods
| Literary Periods | Major literary Trends, Movements and Highlights |
|---|---|
| Anglo-Saxon / Old English (450–1066) | Heroic Tradition: poetry focused on hero’s bravery. Elegiac Tradition: writers mourned the passing of earlier, better times. |
| Anglo-Norman / Middle English (1066–1500) | Popular forms of Writing: Chronicles, Poetry, Drama, Religious and Didactic writing. |
| Renaissance / Age of Shakespeare (1500–1660) | Trends: Revival of learning, Rediscovery of classical philosophy, literature and art, focus on ‘Humanism’ and ‘Puritanism’. Major Forms: poetry and drama. |
| Neoclassical / Enlightenment (1660–1798) | Trends: Revival of classical art and culture of ancient Greece and Rome, focus on order, accuracy, and structure. Poetic Trends: Use of allusions, heroic couplet and strict meter and rhyme. Chief Contribution: The Modern Novel. |
| Romantic Period (1798–1837) | Trends: The Romantic Movement in Poetry, Gothicism in literature. Chief Contribution: Romantic Poetry and The Gothic Novel. |
| Victorian Period (1837–1901) | Literary Trends & Movements: Symbolism, Utilitarianism, Oxford Movement, Romantic Protestantism. Age of Prose & Novel. Main Focus: individually, morality note, conflict between religion and science, human beings than nature. |
| Contemporary Period (1945-Today) | Literary Trends: structuralism, deconstruction, poststructuralism, postmodernism, postcolonialism, and magic realism. Main Focus: horrors of war, genocide, life experiences, real-life themes, alienation, transformation, consumption & relativity of truth. |
The Anglo-Saxon or Old English Period (450-1066 AD)
Angles and Saxons were the ancestors of the English race. After the fall of the Western Roman Empire in the early 5th Century, three Germanic tribes—the Angles, Saxons, and Jutes—saw an opportunity to fill in the power gap and started migrating to Britain. The Anglo-Saxons were fearless, adventurous, and brave people. By 670 A.D. they had occupied the major part of the country, and the land of Anglos or Angloland—present day England—became their permanent abode. The language brought by these Anglo-Saxon settlers together with some Latin and Celtic words became Old English. Anglo-Saxon literature was the earliest phase of English literature. This period consists of literature written in Old English in Anglo-Saxon England from the 5th Century AD to the Norman Conquest of 1066.
The Old English spoken by Anglo-Saxon people looks incomprehensible to today’s English-speakers. However, there are a good number of words that have survived in modern-day English such as “day”, “year”, “kiss”, “love”, “arm” etc.
Anglo-Saxon Poetry
The Anglo-Saxons were fond of singing about battles, gods and their ancestral heroes. It is, however, these songs of religion, wars, and agriculture that marked the beginning of English poetry in ancient England. The Anglo-Saxon poetry was mostly sung instead of written. That’s why there are very few remnants left of it. Among them, the most famous one is Beowulf. It is the first English epic poem. Beowulf narrates a tale of the adventures of Beowulf, a brave hero. This poem, in fact, abounds in all sorts of references and allusions to great events and the fortunes of kings and nations.
After embracing Christianity, the Anglo-Saxon poets began to write religious poetry. Therefore, the major portion of Anglo-Saxon poetry encompasses religion. The most famous religious poets of the Anglo-Saxon period were Caedmon and Cynewulf. Caedmon is famous for his Hymn which praises in honour of God. Cynewulf’s famous religious poems were Juliana, The Fates of the Apostles, Crist, and Elene. Among them, ‘Crist’ is the most popular one telling the event that occurred in the life of Jesus Christ.
Who was the first English writer? Cædmon was the first English writer. He wrote his poetry in the Old English language. His only surviving work is ‘Cædmon’s Hymn.’
The Anglo-Saxon Prose
The Anglo-Saxons replaced Latin prose with English which observed all the rules of ordinary speech in its construction. The famous Anglo-Saxon king, Alfred the Great, translated most of the famous Latin Chronicles in English. However, the second famous prose writer of the Anglo-Saxon period was, no doubt, Aelfric. He was actually a priest. Among his famous writings were Lives of the Saints, Homilies, and Grammar. Moreover, compared to other contemporary prose writers of the period, Aelfric’s prose was easy and alliterative.
What was the first work in English literature? Beowulf was the earliest most popular epic poem of English literature.
The Decline of Anglo-Saxons
The Anglo-Saxon period flourished until the Norman Conquest of 1066. After the defeat of Harold, the last of Saxon kings, by William who was the Conqueror of Normandy, France, the Anglo-Saxon period finally came to an end. In history, their ruling period extends roughly from 450 A.D. to 1066 A.D. There is no doubt that the Anglo-Saxons lived a life rich in courage, splendor, savagery, and sentiment. Their literature, thus, remarkably contains all these traits. It reflects all the main principles of their life, for instance, the love of personal freedom, religion, appreciation for womanhood, responsiveness to nature, and the struggle for glory.
The Anglo-Norman or Middle English Period (1066-1500 AD)
With the Norman conquest began a new era in the history of England literature. The Normans brought with them their rich French culture and language. The literature of this period comes under the category of Norman-French Literature or Anglo-French Literature. Since the Anglo-Norman period belonged to the Middle Ages or Medieval times in Britain History, we also call it the Middle English period in the history of English literature.
We can’t deny the fact that the Norman Contest stimulated the awakening of the people, who extremely needed an outside stimulus at that time. Soon the people got influenced by a new vision and ultimately united in a common hope. As a result, the Anglo-Saxons’ hostility towards the Normans also turned into national unity. The Normans brought with them their soldiers, artisans, traders, chroniclers, minstrels, and scholars. With their help, they wanted to revive knowledge, record memorable events, celebrate victories, and sing of love and adventure. In addition, the most popular forms of writing for the Anglo-Normans were chronicles, religious and didactic writing, poetry, romances and drama.
The Romances of the Anglo-Norman Period
In contrast to the courage, seriousness, and savagery of Anglo-Saxon literature, the Normans introduced romantic tales of love and adventure in literature. This made the Anglo-Norman period to be chivalric rather than heroic. Romance became the most popular form of literature during the Anglo-Norman or Middle English period. These romances were famous for their stories rather than poetry. Most of them, in fact, had their origin in Latin and French sources. They told the stories of King Arthur, The War of Troy, the mythical doings of Charlemagne, and Alexander the Great.
Chronicles in the Anglo-Norman Period
In the Anglo-Norman period of English literature, chronicles became a well-established form of writing. These chronicles basically recorded the history of kings. Though written in the Anglo-Norman language, these chronicles, however, became the major source of historical knowledge for medieval people. Additionally, they contained historical events and legendary material without any interpretation or comment by the author.
The Mystery and Miracle Plays
Another remarkable achievement of the Middle English Period, however, was religious or didactic writings. Under this category came the Mystery and Miracle plays. The Mystery plays were based on subjects taken from the Bible while the Miracle plays depicted the lives of saints. Since only the clergymen of the church had the authority to write and perform these plays, they chose Latin as the medium of writing and performing these plays.
The Morality Plays
In the Middle English period, Morality plays also became very popular. Allegory was, in fact, the main streak of these plays. In the Morality plays characters were personified abstractions presenting the conflict in the human soul. The sole purpose of these plays was to instruct the people through the Bible, lives of saints, and the conflict between good and evil. Hence, these plays also came under the category of religious and didactic writing of that period.
The Anglo-Norman Poets
Some of the famous poets of the Middle English period and their notable works are briefly discussed below:
- Philippe de Thaun: One of the earliest Anglo-Norman poets. Famous for ‘Livre des Creatures’ (astronomy treatise, 1119) and the allegorical poem ‘Bestiaire’ (1121).
- Reginald of Canterbury: A monk famous for ‘The Legend of St Malchus’ (1112).
- Hilarious: A 12th-century Englishman who wrote in Latin, mainly addressing English persons.
- Benoît de Sainte Maur: Famous French poet of the 12th century known for ‘Roman de Troie’ (The Romance of Troy).
- William Langland: 14th-century poet famous for ‘A Vision of Piers the Plowman’, a satire on corrupt religious practices.
- John Gower: Narrative poet and moralist (14th/15th century). Famous for ‘Confession Amantis’. He played a role in developing English as a medium for literature.
Who is the father of English literature? Geoffrey Chaucer is known as the ‘Father of English literature.
The Age of Chaucer (1343-1450)
Towards the end of the Middle English period came ‘The Age of Chaucer’, covering the period from 1343 to 1450. It is the most significant time period in the literary history of English literature. Chaucer made a fresh and distinct beginning in English literature and became the ‘Father of English literature as well as the ‘Father of English poetry. Chaucer’s poetry has been widely read from his own day to the present time. He was not merely a bookman or the visionary, rather, he was a man of the world and its affairs.
The Decline in English Poetry
Chaucer’s significance in the development of English literature is remarkable as he shifted poetry from the region of Theology and Metaphysics to the old classical principle of the direct imitation of nature. After Chaucer, there came a decline in English poetry for about 100 years. The period from 1400 to the Renaissance was bereft of quality literature. The poets of that time period produced little work and merely imitated Chaucer and his contemporaries. Although the beginning of the Anglo-Norman Period is obvious, historians differ on when this period ended. Some historians say that it ended in 1144 or 1066, while for others it lasted up to 1450 or 1500.
The Renaissance Period (1500–1660)
The Renaissance Period in the history of English literature is also known as the Elizabethan Period or the Age of Shakespeare. It is, in fact, the ‘golden age’ in the history of English literature. After the Middle Ages in Europe came the Renaissance, meaning revival or rebirth. As a result, the darkness of the middle ages was replaced by the enlightenment of the human mind with the ‘Revival of Learning’, which the Renaissance prompted. The major characteristic of the Renaissance was its focus on Humanism i.e. man’s concern with himself as an object of observation.
Significant aspects of Humanism include:
- The rediscovery of classical antiquity, particularly of ancient Greece.
- The rediscovery of the external universe, and its importance for man.
- The problems of human personality.
- The enhanced sensitivity to formal beauty, and the cultivation of the aesthetic sense.
- The belief that men are responsible for their own actions.
Elizabethan Drama
During the Renaissance Period, the most important achievement in English literature was in the field of drama. The dramatists of this golden period include William Shakespeare, Christopher Marlowe, Ben Johnson, Lyly, George Peele, Thomas Kyd, Robert Greene and others. Shakespeare took English drama to a level that could not be surpassed till today.
Who is the Father of English Drama? William Shakespeare is called the ‘Father of English Drama.’
Christopher Marlowe (1564-1593)
Part of the ‘University Wits’ (including Lyly, Peele, Greene, Lodge, and Nash). Marlowe was the greatest. He gave dignity and poetic glow to drama, becoming “the Father of English Dramatic Poetry.” Known as the ‘Child of Renaissance.’
Famous Works: Tamburlaine (1587), The Tragical History of Doctor Faustus, The Jew of Malta, and Edward II.
William Shakespeare (1564-1616)
The greatest of all Elizabethan dramatists. Works include non-dramatic poetry (Venice and Adonis, The Rape of Lucrece), 154 sonnets, and 37 plays. His work (1588-1612) is divided into four periods:
- 1577-1593 (First Period): Revision of old plays (Henry VI, Titus Andronicus); Comedies (Two Gentlemen of Verona, Love’s Labor’s Lost, A Midsummer Night’s Dream, Comedy of Errors); Chronicle (Richard III); Tragedy (Romeo and Juliet).
- 1594-1600 (Second Period): Comedies and Chronicles (Merchant of Venice, Richard II, Henry IV, King John, Henry V, Much Ado About Nothing, Taming of the Shrew, As You Like It, Merry Wives of Windsor, Twelfth Night).
- 1601-1608 (Third Period): Great Tragedies (Macbeth, Hamlet, Othello, Julius Caesar, King Lear); Sombre Comedies (All’s Well that Ends Well, Measure for Measure, Coriolanus, Anthony and Cleopatra, Troilus and Cressida, Timon of Athens).
- 1608-1612 (Fourth Period): Dramatic Romances (The Winter’s Tale, The Tempest, Cymbeline).
Ben Johnson (1573-1637): Shakespeare’s contemporary. A moralist and classicist who presented realistic pictures of society and the theory of ‘humour’. Famous works: The Alchemist, Volpone, Every Man in His Humour.
The Puritan Age (1600-1660)
The 17th century’s literature is divided into The Puritan Age or the Age of Milton (1600-1660) and the Restoration Period or the Age of Dryden (1660-1700). John Milton was the greatest representative of the Puritan spirit. The Puritan movement is called the second Renaissance due to the revival of man’s moral nature and stand for liberty.
Who is the Father of English Prose? William Tyndale is known as ‘The Father of English Prose’.
John Milton (1608-1674): Great humanist and scholar. Greatest poetical works: Paradise Lost, Paradise Regained, and Samson Agonistes. Other prose writers of the age: Francis Bacon, Robert Burton, Jeremy Tayler, Sir Thomas Brown and Clarendon.
The Neoclassical Period (1660-1798)
Divided into two parts: the Restoration Period or the Age of Dryden (1660-1700), and the Classical Age or the Augustan Age (18th Century). The Classical Age is further divided into the Age of Pope (1700-1744) and the Age of Johnson (1744-1784).
The Restoration Period (1660-1700)
Monarchy was restored with Charles II. Reaction against Puritans led to indecency and frivolity. Writers focused on realism and preciseness.
Restoration Poetry, Drama and Prose
Poetry: Realistic and satirical. Dryden was the master of the heroic couplet. Famous works: Absalom and Achitophel, The Medal, Religio Laici, The Hind and the Panther, Palamon and Arcite.
Drama: Comedy of Manners (insolence and gaiety). Most popular: William Congreve (Love for Love, The Way of the World). Heroic Tragedy: Dryden (Tyrannic Love, All for Love).
Prose: Unique style evolved for narrative and business. Dominant: Dryden. Other writers: John Bunyan (The Pilgrim’s Progress), John Tillotson, William Temple, Thomas Sprat, Viscount Halifax.
The Classical or Augustan Age (18th Century)
Also called the Age of Reason or Good Sense. Precision and realism were perfected. Prose occupied the front position. The most important feature was the origin and development of the novel (Defoe, Richardson, Smollet, Fielding).
Who is the Mother of English Literature? Francis Burney is known as the ‘Mother of English Literature.’
Age of Pope (1700-1744): Alexander Pope (master of satire). Prose writers: Daniel Defoe, Jonathan Swift, Joseph Addison and Richard Steele.
Age of Johnson (1744-1784): Dr. Samuel Johnson. Age of Transition in English Literature. Poets with romantic leanings: William Blake, Thomas Gray, William Cowper. Prose pillars: Samuel Johnson, Edmund Burke, Edward Gibbon.
The Romantic Period (1798-1837)
A revolt against the Classical school. Initiated in 1798 with ‘Lyrical Ballads’ by Wordsworth and Coleridge. The Romantic poets focused on simplicity, common people, and everyday life. Key figures: Southey, Shelley, Keats, and Byron.
Prose writers reverted to flowery prose. This age produced the Gothic Novel (supernatural/gloomy settings).
The Victorian Period (1837–1901)
Divided into Early Victorian (1837-1870) and Later Victorian (1870-1901). Complex amalgamation of Romanticism and Classicism.
- Early Victorian: Middle-class supremacy, ‘laissez-faire’. Writers: Browning, Tennyson, Dickens, Arnold, Carlyle, Thackeray, Ruskin.
- Later Victorian: Prominent writers: Swinburne, George Eliot (Modern Psychological Novel), Thomas Hardy, Oscar Wilde, Pater. Movements: Pre-Raphaelite and Aesthetic Movement.
The Modern Period (1901-1945)
Opposed Victorian hypocrisy and self-complacency. Scientific thought (Marx, Engels) impacted disintegration of old values. Transition and discovery.
Modern Poetry, Drama and Novel
Poetry: Method of self-discovery. Chief: T. S. Eliot (The Waste Land, Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock). Others: Yeats, Wilfred Owen.
Drama: Revived by G.B. Shaw (Comedy of Idea) and Oscar Wilde (Comedy of Manners). Irish Dramatic Movement: Yeats, Synge, O’Casey.
Novel: Realistic/Psychological. Employed ‘stream of consciousness’. Early masters: Henry James, Joseph Conrad, Rudyard Kipling. Post-WWI: James Joyce, Virginia Woolf, D.H. Lawrence.
Who is the Father of Modern Drama? Henrik Ibsen is well-known as the ‘Father of Modern Drama.’
The Contemporary Period (1945–Today)
Post-WWII novel told the stories of war via mass media influence. Writers: Henry Greene (Nothing, The End of Affair), Samuel Beckett (lonely souls - Murphy), George Orwell (socialist/political - Animal Farm, 1984).
1950s/60s: New generation: Doris Lessing, William Golding (Lord of the Flies). Comic novel: Kingsley Amis (Lucky Jim).
- Focus on foreign and local regional voices.
- Focus on more female voices.
- The academic or campus novel.
- The kind of fantasy known as Magic Realism.
British literature of the contemporary period includes reality-based stories, current era settings, and themes of war, racism, identity, and family.
