Introduction to Literary Theory
The theory is a set of concepts and intellectual assumptions to interpret a text. Theories are the methods of analysis. They are the tools of interpretation. They are methodological and functional in nature. They, in this sense, are poetic which looks at the grammar of any art or literature. We must have the theoretical knowledge to interpret the work of literature; in a sense theory is the lens through which we can see the text. In other words, theories are the glasses that we use to see the world.
In another word, "Literary theory" is the body of ideas and methods we use in the practical reading of literature. By literary theory, we refer not to the meaning of a work of literature but to the theories that reveal what literature can mean. Literary theory is a description of the underlying principles, one might say the tools, by which we attempt to understand literature.It is a literary theory that formulates the relationship between author and works; literary theory develops the significance of race, class, and gender for literary study, both from the standpoint of the biography of the author and an analysis of their thematic presence within texts. Literary theory offers varying approaches for understanding the role of historical context in interpretation as well as the relevance of linguistic and unconscious elements of the text.
Over the ages, literary theories have been the weapons for the realization of this crucial obligation of literary criticism. In the preface to A History of Literary Criticism (1991) A. N. Jeffares says:
"The study of literature requires knowledge of contexts as well as of texts. What kind of person wrote the poem, the play, the novel, the essay? What forces acted upon them as they wrote. What was the historical, the political, the philosophical, the economic, the cultural background etc? All of these are antecedents to the birth of a particular literary production."
Attention to the etymology of the term "theory," from the Greek "theoria," alerts us to the partial nature of theoretical approaches to literature. "Theoria" indicates a view or perspective of the Greek stage. This is precisely what literary theory offers, though specific theories often claim to present a complete system for understanding literature.
Classification by M. H. Abrams
It makes our ability to think critically. By looking through the lenses of the theories, we can see a new world. Theories are the ways of seeing the world differently. M. H. Abrams has classified literary theories into the following four categories:
1. Mimetic Theory (Imitation/Universe)
The word "mimetic" comes from the Greek word "mimesis," the act of imitation. The mimetic theory of literary criticism places main importance on how well a literary work imitates life. This forms the oldest and is, according to Abrams, the "most primitive" category. In The Republic, Plato divides his universe into three realms: ideas, particulars, and reflections (art). Since art is a "shadow," it was held in low regard. However, Aristotle freed the text, showing that the "manner of imitation" and the emotional effect (aesthetic evaluation) are what matter.
2. Pragmatic Theory (Reader Oriented)
These theories are concerned with the relation between text and audience. According to Abrams, these constituted the dominant mode from Horace to the early 19th century. Aristotle argued in Ars Poetica that the three functions of poetry are to teach, to please, and to move. Sir Philip Sydney expanded this into a didactic theory, arguing that poets deal with "what may be," making poetry superior to history.
3. Expressive Theory (Author Oriented)
By 1800, we see the displacement of mimetic and pragmatic views by the expressive view of art (Wordsworth, Longinus, Bacon). The primary duty of the artist was no longer to serve as a mirror reflecting outer things, but instead to externalize the internal, and make one's "inner life" the primary subject of art. The "mirror" became the "lamp."
4. Objective Theory (Text Oriented)
The second type of theory is pragmatic theories, which are concerned with the relation between text and audience. According to Abrams, these theories have constituted the dominant mode of analysis from Horace to the early 19th century, and much of its terminology is borrowed from ancient rhetoric.
Abrams clearly identifies himself as a critical theorist. From his perspective, the purpose of critical theory is to establish principles enabling us to justify, order, and clarify our interpretation and appraisal of the aesthetic.
Criticism and Its Importance
Criticism is the application (use) of theory to interpret a text. We use theory to a text to read, analyze, evaluate, explain, and judge. Modern literary criticism is often informed by literary theory, which is the philosophical discussion of its methods and goals.
Definition: Literary theory is a school of thought or style of analysis that gives readers a means to critique the ideas and principles of literature. Another term is hermeneutics. It examines a cross-section of literature from specific eras or backgrounds to draw conclusions about similarities and differences.
Importance: It enables a broad appreciation of global literature, provides new perspectives, helps learn about authors' intentions, and improves the quality of literature by challenging texts to evolve into new territory.
Types of Literary Criticism
There are many different schools of theory that give readers a special vocabulary to dissect any given literary text:
- Practical criticism: Examines the text without regarding outside context—like the author, date, or place of writing.
- Cultural studies: Examines a text within its socio-cultural environment.
- Formalism: Judges artistic merit by examining formal elements like language and technical skill.
- Reader-response: Believes the reader's reaction is as valuable a source as the text itself.
- The new criticism: Focused on formal and structural elements (Eliot, Brooks, Ransom).
- Psychoanalytic criticism: Uses Freud’s principles (neuroses, dreams) to interpret character states (Lacan, Kristeva).
- Marxist theory: Established by Karl Marx; examines literature along lines of class relations and socialist ideals.
- Postmodernism: Mid-20th-century school reflecting the fractured experience of life; rejects unified narrative.
Further Critical Schools
Post-structuralism & Deconstruction
Post-structuralism: Abandoned formal cohesion, questioning "universal truths" as social constructs. Roland Barthes (the father of semiotics) is a key figure here.
Deconstruction: Proposed by Jacques Derrida; picks apart ideas looking for contradictions that make a singular reading impossible.
Identity-Based Theories
Postcolonial theory: Challenges Western dominance; examines impacts of colonialism (Edward Said’s Orientalism).
Feminist criticism: Focuses on gender studies (Virginia Woolf’s A Room of One's Own, Showalter, Cixous).
Queer theory: Interrogates gender roles through the lens of sexual orientation and identity.
Social & Intersectional Theories
Critical race theory (CRT): Examines law and cultural texts through the lens of race (Crenshaw, Bell).
Critical disability theory: Examines ableist societal structures and their intersection with racism.
